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Geology, Petrographic Characteristics and Tectonic Structure of Paleoproterozoic basement of Kabul Block (North Eastern Afghanistan), Initial Findings

Year 2022, Volume: 6 Issue: 1, 117 - 133, 20.07.2022

Abstract

The Paleoproterozoic basement of Kabul Block is a cratonic basement in north eastern Afghanistan. Precambrian Kabul Block including metamorphic rocks only takes place at the base of the study area. The Neo-Proterozoic Welayati formation overlies the Paleo-Proterozoic Sherdarwaza formation with a tectonic contact, and they both overlay Khair Khana formation. In the region, Alghoi meta granitoid intruded into both Khair Khana and Sherdarwaza formations.
The Khair Khana formation contains of granulites, granitic gneisses ve amphibolites. The mineral assemblages of granulites are plagioclase + quartz + K-feldspar + orthopyroxene + clinopyroxene (diopside/augite). Granitic gneisses are observed as hornblende gneiss, garnet-biotite gneiss and pyroxene-gneiss. Hornblende-gneisses include hornblende + quartz + K-feldspar mineral assemblage, garnet-biotite gneisses are evident with plagioclase + quartz + K-feldspar + biotite (red) + garnet mineral assemblage, and pyroxene gneisses include quartz + plagioclase + biotite + clinopyroxene mineral assemblage. Amphibolites consist of hornblende + plagioclase + quartz ± zoisite ± sphene ± ilmenite ± apatite mineral assemblage. The Sherdarwaza formation contains marbles, amphibolites, biotite gneisses, micaschists and migmatites. Marbles consist of calcites ± quartz ± apatite. In amphibolites, harnblende + plagioclase + quartz ± epidote ± zoisite ± garnet mineral assemblage are observed. Biotite gneisses include plagioclase + quartz + microcline + biotite ± sphene ± apatite ± zircon mineral assemblage. Micachists consist of quartz + plagioclase + microcline + biotite ± sphene ± apatite mineral assemblage. Migmatites include plagioclase + quartz + microcline +biotite ± sphene ± apatite mineral assemblage. Alghoi meta granitoid is generally observed as stocks and small masses, and sometimes it shows foliation. It consists mainly of meta granites. The meta granites that show granular texture include plagioclase + quartz + K-feldspar + biotite + hornblende. The Welayeti formation contains quartzite, kyanite-garnet-staurolite schist, garnet-mica schist, kyanite-garnet-mica schist and garnet-muscovite schist. Quartzite include quartz ± muscovite ± biotite. They are observed hornblende + quartz + plagioclase ± garnet ± epidote ± zoisite ± rutile ± magnetite in amphibolites. Kyanite-garnet-staurolite schists are evident with staurolite + kyanite + garnet + mica + biotite + quartz + plagioclase ± apatite ± epidote ± ilmenite ± monazite mineral assemblage. Garnet-mica schists and kyanite-garnet-mica schists include quartz + plagioclase + biotite + muscovite + kyanite + garnet ± chlorite ± apatite ± tourmaline ± sphene ± rutile. In garnet-muscovite schists, muscovite + quartz + plagioclase + garnet ± tourmaline ± apatite ± zircon are observed.
The granulites in Kabul Block are together with granite gneisses, and they can be separated under one formation. Granulites show different mineral compositions, Usually, they are without garnet, in some cases they include garnet. The amount of plagioclase is higher in them according to other rocks. In some cases, the composition of granulites is very similar to that of quartz mangarites that indicates high temperature and pressure of the metamorphism process and shows that this block is related to a segment of Columbia and Rodinia supercontinents during Paleoproterozoic collisional events.

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References

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  • [2] R. G. Bohannon, and K. J. Turner, “Geologic Map of Quadrangle 3468, Chak Wardak-Syahgerd (509) and Kabul (510) Quadrangles, Afghanistan,” U.S. Geological Survey.pp. 1-10, 2007.
  • [3] N. H. Hayden, “The Geology of Northern Afghanistan,” Mern geol. Surv. India, Calcutta, 39, 1, pp. 1-97, 1911.
  • [4] V. I. Slavin, Structure of Afghanistan, V knige: Mezhdunar sessiya redaktsionnikh komitetov tectonicheskikh kart Evropi, Blizhnego i Srednego Vostoka, Baku, 1945.
  • [5] J. Fischer, “Zur Geologie des Kohe-Safi bei Kabul (Afghanistan),” N.Jb.Geol. Pal., Stuttgart, 139, 3, 1971.
  • [6] G. Mennessier, “Nouvelles observations sur l’âge de la série de Kotagaé et les ultrabasites qui la surmontent, incidence sur la structure du fossé de Kaboul (Afghanistan occidental),” Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des sciences. Série D: Sciences naturelles, vol. 282(17), pp. 1581–1583, 1976.
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  • [10] V. I. Slavin, T. O. Federov and N. M. Feruz, “The geology and age of the metamorphic complex in the Kabil district,” Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Moscow, pp. 123-340, 1972.
  • [11] J. Boulin, “Hercynian and Eocimmerian events in Afghanistan and adjoining regions,” Tectono-physics, vol. 148(3), pp. 253–278, 1988.
  • [12] S. S. Karapetov, Yu. A. Sorokin, Yu. N. Sytov, V. F. Chepela, Sh. Abdullah, and A. Ashmat, “Geological structure of Kabul town region,” Report of Logar and Helmand prospecting-mapping group in 1979-1981, Unpublished Report, Afghan Geological Survey, pp. 10-60, 1981.
  • [13] P. Tapponnier, M. Mattauer, F. Proust, and C. Cassaigneau, “Mesozoic ophiolites, sutures, and Large-scale tectonic movements in Afghanistan,” Earth Planet Sci. Lett., vol. 52(2), pp. 355–371, 1981.
  • [14] P. J. Treloar, and C. N. Izatt, “Tectonics of the Himalayan collision between the Indian plate and the Afghan block: A synthesis,” Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ., vol. 74, pp. 69–87, 1993.
  • [15] S. G. Peters, S. Ludington, G. J. Orris, D. M. Sutphin, J. D. Bliss, and J. J. Rytuba, “Preliminary Non-Fuel Mineral Resource Assessment of Afghanistan 2007,” Geological Survey (US), No: 2007-1214, 045-178, 2007.
  • [16] R. G. Bohannon, R.G., 2010, “Geologic and Topographic Maps of the Kabil North 30 × 60 Quadrangle. Afghanistan,” US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, pp.1-110.2010.
  • [17] S. Collett, S. W. Faryad, and A. M. Mosazai, “Polymetamorphic evolution of the granulite facies Paleo-Proterozoic basement of the Kabil Block, Afghanistan,” Mineralogy and Petrology, pp. 1-22, 2015.
  • [18] S. Collett, S., and S. W. Faryad, “Pressure-temperature evolution of Neoproterozoic metamorphism in the Welayati Formation (Kabil Block), Afghanistan,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 111, pp. 698–710, 2015.
  • [19] S. W. Faryad, S. Collett, F. Finger, S. A. Sergeev, R. Čopjaková, and P. Siman, “The Kabul Block (Afghanistan), a segment of the Columbia Supercontinent, with a Neoproterozoic metamorphic overprint,” Gondwana Research, vol. 34, pp. 221–240, 2016.
  • [20] J. Boulin, “Neocimmerian events in central and western Afghanistan,” Tectonophysics, vol. 175(4), pp. 285–315, 1990.
  • [21] A. C. Şengör, “The Cimmeride orogenic system and the tectonics of Eurasia,” Geological Society of America Special Papers, vol. 195, pp. 1–74, 1984.
  • [22] J. Boulin, “Structures in Southwest Asia and evolution of the eastern Tethys,” Tectonophysics, vol. 196, pp. 211–268, 1991.
  • [23] M. E. Brookfield, and A. Hashmat, “The geology and petroleum potential of the North Afghan platform and adjacent areas (northernAfghanistan, with parts of southern Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan),” Earth Sci. Rev., vol. 55(1), pp. 41–71, 2001.
  • [24] G. Andritzký, “Bau und Entstehungsgeschichte des Altkristallin-Keils von Kabil (Afghanistan) und seiner Randzonen,” Geol. Jahrb., vol. 84, pp. 617–636, 1967.
  • [25] S. H. Abdullah, and V. M. Chmyriov, Geologiya I poleznye iskopaemye Afganistana, Kniga 1. Nedra, Geologiy, Moscow, 535 p., 1977.
  • [26] Beck, R.A., Burbank, D.W., W.J., Sercombe, M.A. Khan, and R.D., Lawrence, “Late cretaceous ophiolite obduction and Paleocene India-Asia collision in the western most Himalaya”. Geodinamica, pp.12-27, 1996.
  • [27] N. Ambraseys, and R. Bilham, “Earthquakes in Afghanistan,” March 2003, Seismological Researc Letters, 74(2), 107-123.
  • [28] J., Crone, Earthquakes Pose a Serious Hazard in Afghanistan. USGS Fact Sheet, 2007–3027, pp.1-4. 2007.
  • [29] H., Moiny, S.W., Faryad, R. Čopjakova, and R., Jedlicka, “Multi-stage metamorphism by progressive accretion of continental blocks, example from the Western Hindu Kush.” Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 1-25. 2020.
  • [30] Lawrence, R.D., Khan, S.H. and Nakata, T., “Chaman fault, Pakistan-Afghanistan,” In: Major active faults of the world—Results of IGCP project 206. Special Issue Supplement to Annales Tectonicae, 6, pp. 196–223, 1992.
  • [31] S. W. Faryad, S. Collett, M. Petterson, and S. A. Sergeev, “Magmatism and metamorphism linked to the accretion of continental blocks south of the Hindu Kush, Afghanistan,” Lithos, 175–176, 302–314, 2013.
  • [32] J., Stocklin, “Structural correlation of the Alpine ranges between Iran and Central Asia.” Memoire Hors-Serve, 8, pp.333–353, 1977.
  • [33] F. Debon, H. Afzali, P. Le-Fort, and J. Sonet, “Major intrusive stages in Afghanistan: Typology, age and geodynamic setting,” Geol Rundschau, vol. 76, pp. 245–264, 1987.
  • [34] S. Collett, “Crustal evolution in the Paleoproterozoic of Afghanistan: Insights from the Sherdarwaza gneiss of the Kabil Block,” Masters Dissertation, University of Leicester, 2011.
  • [35] T. H. Torsvik, M. A. Smethurst, J. G. Meert, R. VanderVoo, W. S. McKerrow, M. D. Brasier, B. A. Sturt, and H. Walderhaug, “Continental breakup and collision in the Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic-A tale of Baltica and Laurentia,” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 40, pp. 229–258, 1996.
  • [36] P. F. Hoffman, A. J. Kaufman, G. P. Halverson, and D. P. Schrag, “A Neoproterozoic snowball earth,” Science, vol. 281(5381), pp. 1342–1346, 1998.
  • [37] J. Meert, “Paleomagnetic Evidence for a Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Supercontinent Columbia,” Gondwana Research, vol. 5, pp. 207–215, 2002.
  • [38] J. J. Rogers, M. Santosh, “Configuration of Columbia, a Mesoproterozoic supercontinent,” Gondwana Research, vol. 5(1), pp. 5–22, 2002.
  • [39] G. Zhao, P. A. Cawood, S. A. Wilde, and M. Sun, “Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga orogens: implications for a pre-Rodinia supercontinent” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 59(1), pp. 125–162, 2002.
  • [40] K. C. Condie, “Supercontinents, superplumes and continental growth: the Neoproterozoic record,” Geological Society, Special Publications, London, vol. 206(1), pp. 1–21, 2003.
  • [41] S. A. Pisarevsky, K. Thrane, and V. Vernikovsky, “Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis,” Precambrian Research, vol. 160(1), pp. 179–210, 2008.
  • [42] G. Zhao, M. Sun, S. A. Wilde, and S. Li, “A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup,” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 67(1), pp. 91–123, 2004.
  • [43] Li, Z.X., Bogdanova, S.V., Collins, A.S., Davidson, A., De Waele, B., Ernst, R.E., Fitzsimons, I.C.W., Fuck, R.A., Gladkochub, D.P., Jacobs, J., Karlstrom, K.E., Lu, S., Natapov, L.M., Pease, V., Pisarevsky, S.A., Thrane, K. and Vernikovsky, V., “Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis.” Precambrian Research, 160(1), pp.179–210, 2008.
  • [44] J. Meert, “Strange attractors, spiritual interlopers and lonely wanderers: The search for pre-Pangean supercontinents,” Geoscience Frontiers, vol. 5, pp. 155–166, 2014.
  • [45] G. M. Stampfli, J. F. von Raumer, and G. D. Borel, “Paleozoic evolution of pre-Variscan terranes: from Gondwana to the Variscan collision,” Special Papers-Geological Society of Americapp., pp. 263–280, 2002.
Year 2022, Volume: 6 Issue: 1, 117 - 133, 20.07.2022

Abstract

Project Number

-

References

  • [1] A. Kh Kafarsky, V. M., Chmyriov, K. F., Stazhilo-Alekseev, Sh. Abdullah, and V. S., Saikovsky, “Geological map of Afghanistan, scale 1:2,500,000,” pp. 1-50, 1975.
  • [2] R. G. Bohannon, and K. J. Turner, “Geologic Map of Quadrangle 3468, Chak Wardak-Syahgerd (509) and Kabul (510) Quadrangles, Afghanistan,” U.S. Geological Survey.pp. 1-10, 2007.
  • [3] N. H. Hayden, “The Geology of Northern Afghanistan,” Mern geol. Surv. India, Calcutta, 39, 1, pp. 1-97, 1911.
  • [4] V. I. Slavin, Structure of Afghanistan, V knige: Mezhdunar sessiya redaktsionnikh komitetov tectonicheskikh kart Evropi, Blizhnego i Srednego Vostoka, Baku, 1945.
  • [5] J. Fischer, “Zur Geologie des Kohe-Safi bei Kabul (Afghanistan),” N.Jb.Geol. Pal., Stuttgart, 139, 3, 1971.
  • [6] G. Mennessier, “Nouvelles observations sur l’âge de la série de Kotagaé et les ultrabasites qui la surmontent, incidence sur la structure du fossé de Kaboul (Afghanistan occidental),” Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des sciences. Série D: Sciences naturelles, vol. 282(17), pp. 1581–1583, 1976.
  • [7] H. Wittekindt, D. Weippert, S. Gratsch, L. L. Hentschke, F. R. Nezam, H. J. Nicksch, and E. Z. Wintzscher, “Geological map of Central and Southern Afghanistan,” Deutsche Geologische Mission in Afghanistan, Bundesanstalt für Bodenforschung, pp.12-23, 1969.
  • [8] J. Ilavský, and J. Kantor, “Prispevok ku geochronologii sirsieho okolia Kabilu (Afghanistan),” Geologické Prace, vol. 37, pp. 65–90, 1965.
  • [9] V. G. Silkin, and I. A. Gusev, “Geology and minerals in the northern part of the Kabul Massif,” Report of the Andreskan team on the work in 1975, Kabul. Rec. Off DGMS, 1976.
  • [10] V. I. Slavin, T. O. Federov and N. M. Feruz, “The geology and age of the metamorphic complex in the Kabil district,” Vestnik Moskovskogo Universiteta, Moscow, pp. 123-340, 1972.
  • [11] J. Boulin, “Hercynian and Eocimmerian events in Afghanistan and adjoining regions,” Tectono-physics, vol. 148(3), pp. 253–278, 1988.
  • [12] S. S. Karapetov, Yu. A. Sorokin, Yu. N. Sytov, V. F. Chepela, Sh. Abdullah, and A. Ashmat, “Geological structure of Kabul town region,” Report of Logar and Helmand prospecting-mapping group in 1979-1981, Unpublished Report, Afghan Geological Survey, pp. 10-60, 1981.
  • [13] P. Tapponnier, M. Mattauer, F. Proust, and C. Cassaigneau, “Mesozoic ophiolites, sutures, and Large-scale tectonic movements in Afghanistan,” Earth Planet Sci. Lett., vol. 52(2), pp. 355–371, 1981.
  • [14] P. J. Treloar, and C. N. Izatt, “Tectonics of the Himalayan collision between the Indian plate and the Afghan block: A synthesis,” Geol. Soc. Lond. Spec. Publ., vol. 74, pp. 69–87, 1993.
  • [15] S. G. Peters, S. Ludington, G. J. Orris, D. M. Sutphin, J. D. Bliss, and J. J. Rytuba, “Preliminary Non-Fuel Mineral Resource Assessment of Afghanistan 2007,” Geological Survey (US), No: 2007-1214, 045-178, 2007.
  • [16] R. G. Bohannon, R.G., 2010, “Geologic and Topographic Maps of the Kabil North 30 × 60 Quadrangle. Afghanistan,” US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, pp.1-110.2010.
  • [17] S. Collett, S. W. Faryad, and A. M. Mosazai, “Polymetamorphic evolution of the granulite facies Paleo-Proterozoic basement of the Kabil Block, Afghanistan,” Mineralogy and Petrology, pp. 1-22, 2015.
  • [18] S. Collett, S., and S. W. Faryad, “Pressure-temperature evolution of Neoproterozoic metamorphism in the Welayati Formation (Kabil Block), Afghanistan,” Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, vol. 111, pp. 698–710, 2015.
  • [19] S. W. Faryad, S. Collett, F. Finger, S. A. Sergeev, R. Čopjaková, and P. Siman, “The Kabul Block (Afghanistan), a segment of the Columbia Supercontinent, with a Neoproterozoic metamorphic overprint,” Gondwana Research, vol. 34, pp. 221–240, 2016.
  • [20] J. Boulin, “Neocimmerian events in central and western Afghanistan,” Tectonophysics, vol. 175(4), pp. 285–315, 1990.
  • [21] A. C. Şengör, “The Cimmeride orogenic system and the tectonics of Eurasia,” Geological Society of America Special Papers, vol. 195, pp. 1–74, 1984.
  • [22] J. Boulin, “Structures in Southwest Asia and evolution of the eastern Tethys,” Tectonophysics, vol. 196, pp. 211–268, 1991.
  • [23] M. E. Brookfield, and A. Hashmat, “The geology and petroleum potential of the North Afghan platform and adjacent areas (northernAfghanistan, with parts of southern Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan),” Earth Sci. Rev., vol. 55(1), pp. 41–71, 2001.
  • [24] G. Andritzký, “Bau und Entstehungsgeschichte des Altkristallin-Keils von Kabil (Afghanistan) und seiner Randzonen,” Geol. Jahrb., vol. 84, pp. 617–636, 1967.
  • [25] S. H. Abdullah, and V. M. Chmyriov, Geologiya I poleznye iskopaemye Afganistana, Kniga 1. Nedra, Geologiy, Moscow, 535 p., 1977.
  • [26] Beck, R.A., Burbank, D.W., W.J., Sercombe, M.A. Khan, and R.D., Lawrence, “Late cretaceous ophiolite obduction and Paleocene India-Asia collision in the western most Himalaya”. Geodinamica, pp.12-27, 1996.
  • [27] N. Ambraseys, and R. Bilham, “Earthquakes in Afghanistan,” March 2003, Seismological Researc Letters, 74(2), 107-123.
  • [28] J., Crone, Earthquakes Pose a Serious Hazard in Afghanistan. USGS Fact Sheet, 2007–3027, pp.1-4. 2007.
  • [29] H., Moiny, S.W., Faryad, R. Čopjakova, and R., Jedlicka, “Multi-stage metamorphism by progressive accretion of continental blocks, example from the Western Hindu Kush.” Journal of Metamorphic Geology, 1-25. 2020.
  • [30] Lawrence, R.D., Khan, S.H. and Nakata, T., “Chaman fault, Pakistan-Afghanistan,” In: Major active faults of the world—Results of IGCP project 206. Special Issue Supplement to Annales Tectonicae, 6, pp. 196–223, 1992.
  • [31] S. W. Faryad, S. Collett, M. Petterson, and S. A. Sergeev, “Magmatism and metamorphism linked to the accretion of continental blocks south of the Hindu Kush, Afghanistan,” Lithos, 175–176, 302–314, 2013.
  • [32] J., Stocklin, “Structural correlation of the Alpine ranges between Iran and Central Asia.” Memoire Hors-Serve, 8, pp.333–353, 1977.
  • [33] F. Debon, H. Afzali, P. Le-Fort, and J. Sonet, “Major intrusive stages in Afghanistan: Typology, age and geodynamic setting,” Geol Rundschau, vol. 76, pp. 245–264, 1987.
  • [34] S. Collett, “Crustal evolution in the Paleoproterozoic of Afghanistan: Insights from the Sherdarwaza gneiss of the Kabil Block,” Masters Dissertation, University of Leicester, 2011.
  • [35] T. H. Torsvik, M. A. Smethurst, J. G. Meert, R. VanderVoo, W. S. McKerrow, M. D. Brasier, B. A. Sturt, and H. Walderhaug, “Continental breakup and collision in the Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic-A tale of Baltica and Laurentia,” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 40, pp. 229–258, 1996.
  • [36] P. F. Hoffman, A. J. Kaufman, G. P. Halverson, and D. P. Schrag, “A Neoproterozoic snowball earth,” Science, vol. 281(5381), pp. 1342–1346, 1998.
  • [37] J. Meert, “Paleomagnetic Evidence for a Paleo-Mesoproterozoic Supercontinent Columbia,” Gondwana Research, vol. 5, pp. 207–215, 2002.
  • [38] J. J. Rogers, M. Santosh, “Configuration of Columbia, a Mesoproterozoic supercontinent,” Gondwana Research, vol. 5(1), pp. 5–22, 2002.
  • [39] G. Zhao, P. A. Cawood, S. A. Wilde, and M. Sun, “Review of global 2.1–1.8 Ga orogens: implications for a pre-Rodinia supercontinent” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 59(1), pp. 125–162, 2002.
  • [40] K. C. Condie, “Supercontinents, superplumes and continental growth: the Neoproterozoic record,” Geological Society, Special Publications, London, vol. 206(1), pp. 1–21, 2003.
  • [41] S. A. Pisarevsky, K. Thrane, and V. Vernikovsky, “Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis,” Precambrian Research, vol. 160(1), pp. 179–210, 2008.
  • [42] G. Zhao, M. Sun, S. A. Wilde, and S. Li, “A Paleo-Mesoproterozoic supercontinent: assembly, growth and breakup,” Earth-Science Reviews, vol. 67(1), pp. 91–123, 2004.
  • [43] Li, Z.X., Bogdanova, S.V., Collins, A.S., Davidson, A., De Waele, B., Ernst, R.E., Fitzsimons, I.C.W., Fuck, R.A., Gladkochub, D.P., Jacobs, J., Karlstrom, K.E., Lu, S., Natapov, L.M., Pease, V., Pisarevsky, S.A., Thrane, K. and Vernikovsky, V., “Assembly, configuration, and break-up history of Rodinia: a synthesis.” Precambrian Research, 160(1), pp.179–210, 2008.
  • [44] J. Meert, “Strange attractors, spiritual interlopers and lonely wanderers: The search for pre-Pangean supercontinents,” Geoscience Frontiers, vol. 5, pp. 155–166, 2014.
  • [45] G. M. Stampfli, J. F. von Raumer, and G. D. Borel, “Paleozoic evolution of pre-Variscan terranes: from Gondwana to the Variscan collision,” Special Papers-Geological Society of Americapp., pp. 263–280, 2002.
There are 45 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Engineering
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Gürsel Kansun 0000-0002-4581-6076

Ahmad Omid Afzalı 0000-0002-4423-7777

Project Number -
Publication Date July 20, 2022
Submission Date May 27, 2022
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 6 Issue: 1

Cite

IEEE G. Kansun and A. O. Afzalı, “Geology, Petrographic Characteristics and Tectonic Structure of Paleoproterozoic basement of Kabul Block (North Eastern Afghanistan), Initial Findings”, IJMSIT, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 117–133, 2022.